Markets
Ranked: The Best and Worst Pension Plans, by Country
Ranked: Countries with the Best and Worst Pension Plans
The global population is aging—by 2050, one in six people will be over the age of 65.
As our aging population nears retirement and gets closer to cashing in their pensions, countries need to ensure their pension systems can withstand the extra strain.
This graphic uses data from the Melbourne Mercer Global Pension Index (MMGPI) to showcase which countries are best equipped to support their older citizens, and which ones aren’t.
The Breakdown
Each country’s pension system has been shaped by its own economic and historical context. This makes it difficult to draw precise comparisons between countries—yet there are certain universal elements that typically lead to adequate and stable support for older citizens.
MMGPI organized these universal elements into three sub-indexes:
- Adequacy: The base-level of income, as well as the design of a region’s private pension system.
- Sustainability: The state pension age, the level of advanced funding from government, and the level of government debt.
- Integrity: Regulations and governance put in place to protect plan members.
These three measures were used to rank the pension system of 37 different countries, representing over 63% of the world’s population.
Here’s how each country ranked:
Country | Overall Value | Adequacy | Sustainability | Integrity |
---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 39.5 | 43.1 | 31.9 | 44.4 |
Australia | 75.3 | 70.3 | 73.5 | 85.7 |
Austria | 53.9 | 68.2 | 22.9 | 74.4 |
Brazil | 55.9 | 71.8 | 27.7 | 69.8 |
Canada | 69.2 | 70 | 61.8 | 78.2 |
Chile | 68.7 | 59.4 | 71.7 | 79.2 |
China | 48.7 | 60.5 | 36.7 | 46.5 |
Colombia | 58.4 | 61.4 | 46 | 70.8 |
Denmark | 80.3 | 77.5 | 82 | 82.2 |
Finland | 73.6 | 73.2 | 60.7 | 92.3 |
France | 60.2 | 79.1 | 41 | 56.8 |
Germany | 66.1 | 78.3 | 44.9 | 76.4 |
Hong Kong | 61.9 | 54.5 | 54.5 | 86.9 |
India | 45.8 | 39.9 | 44.9 | 56.3 |
Indonesia | 52.2 | 46.7 | 47.6 | 67.5 |
Ireland | 67.3 | 81.5 | 44.6 | 76.3 |
Italy | 52.2 | 67.4 | 19 | 74.5 |
Japan | 48.3 | 54.6 | 32.2 | 60.8 |
Korea | 49.8 | 47.5 | 52.6 | 49.6 |
Malaysia | 60.6 | 50.5 | 60.5 | 76.9 |
Mexico | 45.3 | 37.5 | 57.1 | 41.3 |
Netherlands | 81 | 78.5 | 78.3 | 88.9 |
New Zealand | 70.1 | 70.9 | 61.5 | 80.7 |
Norway | 71.2 | 71.6 | 56.8 | 90.6 |
Peru | 58.5 | 60 | 52.4 | 64.7 |
Philippines | 43.7 | 39 | 55.5 | 34.7 |
Poland | 57.4 | 62.5 | 45.3 | 66 |
Saudi Arabia | 57.1 | 59.6 | 50.5 | 62.2 |
Singapore | 70.8 | 73.8 | 59.7 | 81.4 |
South Africa | 52.6 | 42.3 | 46 | 78.4 |
Spain | 54.7 | 70 | 26.9 | 69.1 |
Sweden | 72.3 | 67.5 | 72 | 80.2 |
Switzerland | 66.7 | 57.6 | 65.4 | 83 |
Thailand | 39.4 | 35.8 | 38.8 | 46.1 |
Turkey | 42.2 | 42.6 | 27.1 | 62.8 |
UK | 64.4 | 60 | 55.3 | 84 |
U.S. | 60.6 | 58.8 | 62.9 | 60.4 |
The Importance of Sustainability
While all three sub-indexes are important to consider when ranking a country’s pension system, sustainability is particularly significant in the modern context. This is because our global population is increasingly skewing older, meaning an influx of people will soon be cashing in their retirement funds. As a consequence, countries need to ensure their pension systems are sustainable over the long-term.
There are several factors that affect a pension system’s sustainability, including a region’s private pension system, the state pension age, and the balance between workers and retirees.
The country with the most sustainable pension system is Denmark. Not only does the country have a strong basic pension plan—it also has a mandatory occupational scheme, which means employers are obligated by law to provide pension plans for their employees.
Adequacy versus Sustainability
Several countries scored high on adequacy but ranked low when it came to sustainability. Here’s a comparison of both measures, and how each country scored:
Ireland took first place for adequacy, but scored relatively low on the sustainability front at 27th place. This can be partly explained by Ireland’s low level of occupational coverage. The country also has a rapidly aging population, which skews the ratio of workers to retirees. By 2050, Ireland’s worker to retiree ratio is estimated to go from 5:1 to 2:1.
Similar to Ireland, Spain ranks high in adequacy but places extremely low in sustainability.
There are several possible explanations for this—while occupational pension schemes exist, they are optional and participation is low. Spain also has a low fertility rate, which means their worker-to-retiree ratio is expected to decrease.
Steps Towards a Better System
All countries have room for improvement—even the highest-ranking ones. Some general recommendations from MMGPI on how to build a better pension system include:
- Increasing the age of retirement: Helps maintain a more balanced worker-to-retiree ratio.
- Enforcing mandatory occupational schemes: Makes employers obligated to provide pension plans for their employees.
- Limiting access to benefits: Prevents people from dipping into their savings preemptively, thus preserving funds until retirement.
- Establishing strong pension assets to fund future liabilities: Ideally, these assets are more than 100% of a country’s GDP.
Pension systems across the globe are under an increasing amount of pressure. It’s time for countries to take a hard look at their pension systems to make sure they’re ready to support their aging population.
Central Banks
Which Countries Hold the Most U.S. Debt?
Foreign investors hold $7.3 trillion of the national U.S. debt. These holdings declined 6% in 2022 amid a strong U.S. dollar and rising rates.

Which Countries Hold the Most U.S. Debt in 2022?
Today, America owes foreign investors of its national debt $7.3 trillion.
These are in the form of Treasury securities, some of the most liquid assets worldwide. Central banks use them for foreign exchange reserves and private investors flock to them during flights to safety thanks to their perceived low default risk.
Beyond these reasons, foreign investors may buy Treasuries as a store of value. They are often used as collateral during certain international trade transactions, or countries can use them to help manage exchange rate policy. For example, countries may buy Treasuries to protect their currency’s exchange rate from speculation.
In the above graphic, we show the foreign holders of the U.S. national debt using data from the U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Top Foreign Holders of U.S. Debt
With $1.1 trillion in Treasury holdings, Japan is the largest foreign holder of U.S. debt.
Japan surpassed China as the top holder in 2019 as China shed over $250 billion, or 30% of its holdings in four years.
This bond offloading by China is the one way the country can manage the yuan’s exchange rate. This is because if it sells dollars, it can buy the yuan when the currency falls. At the same time, China doesn’t solely use the dollar to manage its currency—it now uses a basket of currencies.
Here are the countries that hold the most U.S. debt:
Rank | Country | U.S. Treasury Holdings | Share of Total |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 🇯🇵 Japan | $1,076B | 14.7% |
2 | 🇨🇳 China | $867B | 11.9% |
3 | 🇬🇧 United Kingdom | $655B | 8.9% |
4 | 🇧🇪 Belgium | $354B | 4.8% |
5 | 🇱🇺 Luxembourg | $329B | 4.5% |
6 | 🇰🇾 Cayman Islands | $284B | 3.9% |
7 | 🇨🇭 Switzerland | $270B | 3.7% |
8 | 🇮🇪 Ireland | $255B | 3.5% |
9 | 🇹🇼 Taiwan | $226B | 3.1% |
10 | 🇮🇳 India | $224B | 3.1% |
11 | 🇭🇰 Hong Kong | $221B | 3.0% |
12 | 🇧🇷 Brazil | $217B | 3.0% |
13 | 🇨🇦 Canada | $215B | 2.9% |
14 | 🇫🇷 France | $189B | 2.6% |
15 | 🇸🇬 Singapore | $179B | 2.4% |
16 | 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia | $120B | 1.6% |
17 | 🇰🇷 South Korea | $103B | 1.4% |
18 | 🇩🇪 Germany | $101B | 1.4% |
19 | 🇳🇴 Norway | $92B | 1.3% |
20 | 🇧🇲 Bermuda | $82B | 1.1% |
21 | 🇳🇱 Netherlands | $67B | 0.9% |
22 | 🇲🇽 Mexico | $59B | 0.8% |
23 | 🇦🇪 UAE | $59B | 0.8% |
24 | 🇦🇺 Australia | $57B | 0.8% |
25 | 🇰🇼 Kuwait | $49B | 0.7% |
26 | 🇵🇭 Philippines | $48B | 0.7% |
27 | 🇮🇱 Israel | $48B | 0.7% |
28 | 🇧🇸 Bahamas | $46B | 0.6% |
29 | 🇹🇭 Thailand | $46B | 0.6% |
30 | 🇸🇪 Sweden | $42B | 0.6% |
31 | 🇮🇶 Iraq | $41B | 0.6% |
32 | 🇨🇴 Colombia | $40B | 0.5% |
33 | 🇮🇹 Italy | $39B | 0.5% |
34 | 🇵🇱 Poland | $38B | 0.5% |
35 | 🇪🇸 Spain | $37B | 0.5% |
36 | 🇻🇳 Vietnam | $37B | 0.5% |
37 | 🇨🇱 Chile | $34B | 0.5% |
38 | 🇵🇪 Peru | $32B | 0.4% |
All Other | $439B | 6.0% |
As the above table shows, the United Kingdom is the third highest holder, at over $655 billion in Treasuries. Across Europe, 13 countries are notable holders of these securities, the highest in any region, followed by Asia-Pacific at 11 different holders.
A handful of small nations own a surprising amount of U.S. debt. With a population of 70,000, the Cayman Islands own a towering amount of Treasury bonds to the tune of $284 billion. There are more hedge funds domiciled in the Cayman Islands per capita than any other nation worldwide.
In fact, the four smallest nations in the visualization above—Cayman Islands, Bermuda, Bahamas, and Luxembourg—have a combined population of just 1.2 million people, but own a staggering $741 billion in Treasuries.
Interest Rates and Treasury Market Dynamics
Over 2022, foreign demand for Treasuries sank 6% as higher interest rates and a strong U.S. dollar made owning these bonds less profitable.
This is because rising interest rates on U.S. debt makes the present value of their future income payments lower. Meanwhile, their prices also fall.
As the chart below shows, this drop in demand is a sharp reversal from 2018-2020, when demand jumped as interest rates hovered at historic lows. A similar trend took place in the decade after the 2008-09 financial crisis when U.S. debt holdings effectively tripled from $2 to $6 trillion.
Driving this trend was China’s rapid purchase of Treasuries, which ballooned from $100 billion in 2002 to a peak of $1.3 trillion in 2013. As the country’s exports and output expanded, it sold yuan and bought dollars to help alleviate exchange rate pressure on its currency.
Fast-forward to today, and global interest-rate uncertainty—which in turn can impact national currency valuations and therefore demand for Treasuries—continues to be a factor impacting the future direction of foreign U.S. debt holdings.
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