Energy
Visualizing the EU’s Energy Dependency
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Visualizing the EU’s Energy Dependency
This was originally posted on Elements. Sign up to the free mailing list to get beautiful visualizations on natural resource megatrends in your email every week.
In response to Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, the U.S. and EU have imposed heavy sanctions aimed at crippling the Russian economy. However, these bold actions also come with some potentially messy complications: Russia is not only one of the world’s largest exporters of energy products, but it is also Europe’s biggest supplier of these fuels.
As of October 2021, Russia supplied 25% of all oil imported by the EU, which is three times more than the second-largest trade partner. Naturally, the policies and circumstances that have led to this dependency have been under major scrutiny in recent weeks.
To help you learn more, this infographic visualizes energy data from Eurostat.
Energy Dependency, by Country
To start, let’s compare the energy dependence of each EU member, both in 2000 and 2020 (the latest year available). This metric shows the extent to which a country relies upon imports to meet its energy needs.
Note that Denmark’s value of -35.9% for the year 2000 is not a typo. Rather, it means that the country was a net exporter of energy.
| Country | 2000 | 2020 |
|---|---|---|
| 🇦🇹 Austria | 65.5% | 58.3% |
| 🇧🇪 Belgium | 78.2% | 78.0% |
| 🇧🇬 Bulgaria | 46.4% | 37.9% |
| 🇭🇷 Croatia | 48.5% | 53.6% |
| 🇨🇾 Cyprus | 98.6% | 93.1% |
| 🇨🇿 Czechia | 22.7% | 38.9% |
| 🇩🇰 Denmark | -35.9% | 44.9% |
| 🇪🇪 Estonia | 34.0% | 10.6% |
| 🇫🇮 Finland | 55.5% | 42.0% |
| 🇫🇷 France | 51.2% | 44.5% |
| 🇩🇪 Germany | 59.4% | 63.7% |
| 🇬🇷 Greece | 69.1% | 81.4% |
| 🇭🇺 Hungary | 55.0% | 56.6% |
| 🇮🇪 Ireland | 85.4% | 71.3% |
| 🇮🇹 Italy | 86.5% | 73.5% |
| 🇱🇻 Latvia | 61.0% | 45.5% |
| 🇱🇹 Lithuania | 57.8% | 74.9% |
| 🇱🇺 Luxembourg | 99.6% | 92.5% |
| 🇲🇹 Malta | 100.2% | 97.6% |
| 🇳🇱 Netherlands | 38.3% | 68.1% |
| 🇵🇱 Poland | 10.7% | 42.8% |
| 🇵🇹 Portugal | 85.3% | 65.3% |
| 🇷🇴 Romania | 21.9% | 28.2% |
| 🇸🇰 Slovakia | 65.1% | 56.3% |
| 🇸🇮 Slovenia | 51.9% | 45.8% |
| 🇪🇸 Spain | 76.8% | 67.9% |
| 🇸🇪 Sweden | 39.3% | 33.5% |
| Average | 56.3% | 57.5% |
Over this 20-year timeframe, the EU-27 average country’s energy dependence has increased from 56.3% to 57.5%, meaning EU members became slightly more reliant on energy imports over those two decades.
Where Do EU’s Energy Imports Come From?
Looking further into energy imports reveals that Russia is the main supplier of crude oil, coal, and natural gas. Continue below for more details.
Crude Oil Imports
The EU imports more crude oil from Russia than the next three countries combined.
| Country | Percentage of total |
|---|---|
| 🇷🇺 Russia | 26.9% |
| 🇮🇶 Iraq | 9.0% |
| 🇳🇬 Nigeria | 7.9% |
| 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia | 7.7% |
| 🇰🇿 Kazakhstan | 7.3% |
| 🇳🇴 Norway | 7.0% |
| 🇱🇾 Libya | 6.2% |
| 🇺🇸 United States | 5.3% |
| 🇬🇧 United Kingdom | 4.9% |
| 🇦🇿 Azerbaijan | 4.5% |
| 🇩🇿 Algeria | 2.4% |
| Others | 10.9% |
This shouldn’t come as a surprise, as Russia was the world’s third largest producer of oil in 2020. The country has several state-owned oil companies including Rosneft and Gazprom.
Coal Imports
Coal-fired power plants are still being used across the EU, though most member states expect to completely phase them out by 2030.
| Country | Percentage of total |
|---|---|
| 🇷🇺 Russia | 46.7% |
| 🇺🇸 United States | 17.7% |
| 🇦🇺 Australia | 13.7% |
| 🇨🇴 Colombia | 8.2% |
| 🇿🇦 South Africa | 2.8% |
| Others | 10.9% |
Russia has the second largest coal reserves in the world. In 2020, it mined 328 million metric tons, making it the sixth largest producer globally.
Natural Gas Imports
Natural gas is commonly used to heat buildings and water. A majority of the EU’s supply comes from Russia via the Nord Stream series of pipelines.
| Country | Percentage of total |
|---|---|
| 🇷🇺 Russia | 41.1% |
| 🇳🇴 Norway | 16.2% |
| 🇩🇿 Algeria | 7.6% |
| 🇶🇦 Qatar | 5.2% |
| Others | 29.9% |
Nord Stream 1 is the longest sub-sea pipeline in the world and was completed in 2011. It starts from the Russian city of Vyborg and connects to the EU through Germany.
Nord Stream 2 is a recently constructed expansion which was expected to double the project’s capacity. Germany has since halted the approval process for this pipeline in response to Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine.
What Happens Now?
In retaliation against Western sanctions, Russia has announced an impending ban on exports of certain goods and raw materials.
European gas prices skyrocketed in response, as many fear that Russia could cut off natural gas supplies. This, of course, would have very negative effects on both consumers and businesses.
In early March 2022, both the European Commission and the International Energy Agency (IEA) introduced proposals on how Europe could reduce its energy dependency.
We must become independent from Russian oil, coal and gas. We simply cannot rely on a supplier who explicitly threatens us.
– Ursula von der Leyen, President of the European Commission
Cutting off one’s biggest supplier is likely to cause issues, especially when dealing with something as critical as energy. Few countries have the capacity (or willingness) to immediately replace Russian imports.
The proposals also discussed options for boosting Europe’s domestic output, though the commission’s report notably excluded nuclear power. For various reasons, nuclear remains a polarizing topic in Europe, with countries taking either a pro or anti stance.
Energy
Visualizing the Range of Electric Cars vs. Gas-Powered Cars
With range anxiety being a barrier to EV adoption, how far can an electric car go on one charge, and how do EV ranges compare with gas cars?
The Range of Electric Cars vs. Gas-Powered Cars
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EV adoption has grown rapidly in recent years, but many prospective buyers still have doubts about electric car ranges.
In fact, 33% of new car buyers chose range anxiety—the concern about how far an EV can drive on a full charge—as their top inhibitor to purchasing electric cars in a survey conducted by EY.
So, how far can the average electric car go on one charge, and how does that compare with the typical range of gas-powered cars?
The Rise in EV Ranges
Thanks to improvements in battery technology, the average range of electric cars has more than doubled over the last decade, according to data from the International Energy Agency (IEA).
| Year | Avg. EV Range | Maximum EV Range |
|---|---|---|
| 2010 | 79 miles (127 km) | N/A |
| 2011 | 86 miles (138 km) | 94 miles (151 km) |
| 2012 | 99 miles (159 km) | 265 miles (426 km) |
| 2013 | 117 miles (188 km) | 265 miles (426 km) |
| 2014 | 130 miles (209 km) | 265 miles (426 km) |
| 2015 | 131 miles (211 km) | 270 miles (435 km) |
| 2016 | 145 miles (233 km) | 315 miles (507 km) |
| 2017 | 151 miles (243 km) | 335 miles (539 km) |
| 2018 | 189 miles (304 km) | 335 miles (539 km) |
| 2019 | 209 miles (336 km) | 370 miles (595 km) |
| 2020 | 210 miles (338 km) | 402 miles (647 km) |
| 2021 | 217 miles (349 km) | 520 miles* (837 km) |
*Max range for EVs offered in the United States.
Source: IEA, U.S. DOE
As of 2021, the average battery-powered EV could travel 217 miles (349 km) on a single charge. It represents a 44% increase from 151 miles (243 km) in 2017 and a 152% increase relative to a decade ago.
Despite the steady growth, EVs still fall short when compared to gas-powered cars. For example, in 2021, the median gas car range (on one full tank) in the U.S. was around 413 miles (664 km)—nearly double what the average EV would cover.
As automakers roll out new models, electric car ranges are likely to continue increasing and could soon match those of their gas-powered counterparts. It’s important to note that EV ranges can change depending on external conditions.
What Affects EV Ranges?
In theory, EV ranges depend on battery capacity and motor efficiency, but real-world results can vary based on several factors:
- Weather: At temperatures below 20℉ (-6.7℃), EVs can lose around 12% of their range, rising to 41% if heating is turned on inside the vehicle.
- Operating Conditions: Thanks to regenerative braking, EVs may extend their maximum range during city driving.
- Speed: When driving at high speeds, EV motors spin faster at a less efficient rate. This may result in range loss.
On the contrary, when driven at optimal temperatures of about 70℉ (21.5℃), EVs can exceed their rated range, according to an analysis by Geotab.
The 10 Longest-Range Electric Cars in America
Here are the 10 longest-range electric cars available in the U.S. as of 2022, based on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) range estimates:
| Car | Range On One Full Charge | Estimated Base Price |
|---|---|---|
| Lucid Air | 520 miles (837 km) | $170,500 |
| Tesla Model S | 405 miles (652 km) | $106,190 |
| Tesla Model 3 | 358 miles (576 km) | $59,440 |
| Mercedes EQS | 350 miles (563 km) | $103,360 |
| Tesla Model X | 348 miles (560 km) | $122,440 |
| Tesla Model Y | 330 miles (531 km) | $67,440 |
| Hummer EV | 329 miles (529 km) | $110,295 |
| BMW iX | 324 miles (521 km) | $84,195 |
| Ford F-150 Lightning | 320 miles (515 km) | $74,169 |
| Rivian R1S | 316 miles (509 km) | $70,000 |
Source: Car and Driver
The top-spec Lucid Air offers the highest range of any EV with a price tag of $170,500, followed by the Tesla Model S. But the Tesla Model 3 offers the most bang for your buck if range and price are the only two factors in consideration.
Energy
Green Steel: Decarbonising with Hydrogen-Fueled Production
How will high emission industries respond to climate change? We highlight industrial emissions and hydrogen’s role in green steel production.
Green Steel: Decarbonising with Hydrogen-Fueled Production
As the fight against climate change ramps up worldwide, the need for industries and economies to respond is immediate.
Of course, different sectors contribute different amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and face different paths to decarbonisation as a result. One massive player? Steel and iron manufacturing, where energy-related emissions account for roughly 6.1% of global emissions.
The following infographic by AFRY highlights the need for steel manufacturing to evolve and decarbonise, and how hydrogen can play a vital role in the “green” steel revolution.
The Modern Steel Production Landscape
Globally, crude steel production totalled 1,951 million tonnes (Mt) in 2021.
This production is spread all over the world, including India, Japan, and the U.S., with the vast majority (1,033 million tonnes) concentrated in China.
But despite being produced in many different places globally, only two main methods of steel production have been honed and utilised over time—electric arc furnace (EAF) and blast furnace basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) production.
Both methods traditionally use fossil fuels, and in 2019 contributed 3.6 Gt of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions:
| Steel Production Method | Materials Utilised | CO2 Emissions (2019) |
|---|---|---|
| EAF | Scrap | 0.5 Gt |
| BF-BOF | Scrap, iron ore, coke | 3.1 Gt |
That’s why one of the main ways the steel industry can decarbonise is through the replacement of fossil fuels.
Hydrogen’s Role in Green Steel Production
Of course, one of the biggest challenges facing the industry is how to decarbonise and produce “green” steel in an extremely competitive market.
As a globally-traded good with fine cost margins, steel production has been associated with major geopolitical issues, including trade disputes and tariffs. But because of climate change, there is also a sudden and massive demand for carbon-friendly production.
And that’s where hydrogen plays a key role. Steel traditionally made in a blast furnace uses coke—a high-carbon fuel made by heating coal without air—as a fuel source to heat iron ore pellets and liquify the pure iron component. This expels a lot of emissions in order to get the iron hot enough to melt (1,200 °C) and be mixed with scrap and made into steel.
The green steel method instead uses hydrogen to reduce the iron pellets into sponge iron, metallic iron that can then be processed to form steel. This process is also done at high temperature but below the melting point of iron (800 – 1,200 °C), saving energy costs.
And by introducing non-fossil fuels to create iron pellets and renewable electricity to turn the sponge iron and scrap into steel, fossil fuels can be removed from the process, significantly reducing emissions as a result.
The Future of Green Steel Production
Given the massive global demand for steel, the need for hydrogen and renewable energy required for green steel production is just as significant.
According to AFRY and the International Renewable Energy Agency, meeting global steel production in 2021 using the green steel method would require 97.6 million tonnes of hydrogen.
And for a truly carbon-free transition to green steel, the energy industry will also need to focus on green hydrogen production using electrolysis. Unlike methods which burn natural gas to release hydrogen, electrolysis entails the splitting of water (H2O) into oxygen and hydrogen using renewable energy sources.
Full green steel production would therefore use green hydrogen, electrolysers running on renewables, and additional renewables for all parts of the supply chain:
| Steel Production Source | Annual Steel Production | Green Hydrogen Required | Electrolyser Capacity Required | Total Renewables Capacity Required |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base Reference | 1 Mt | 50 kT | 0.56 GW | 0.7 GW |
| U.S. | 85.8 Mt | 4.3 Mt | 48 GW | 60 GW |
| Europe | 103 Mt | 5.2 Mt | 58 GW | 72 GW |
| China | 1032.8 Mt | 51.6 Mt | 581 GW | 726 GW |
| Global | 1951 Mt | 97.6 Mt | 1,097 GW | 1,371 GW |
Currently, green hydrogen production costs are higher than traditional fossil fuel methods, and are dependent on the levelised costs of renewable energy sources. This means they vary by region, but also that they will reduce as production capacity and subsidies for renewables and green hydrogen increase.
And many major European steel manufacturers are already leading the way with pilot and large scale facilities for green steel production. Germany alone has at least seven projects in the works, including by ArcelorMittal and ThyssenKrupp, two of the world’s 10 largest steelmakers by revenue.
AFRY is a thought leadership firm that provides companies with advisory services and sustainable solutions, in their efforts to fight climate change and lead them towards a greater future.
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