Misc
The Elevation Span of Every Country in the World
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The Elevation Span of Every Country in the World
View the high resolution version of today’s graphic by clicking here.
Giant countries like Canada or Russia can take their sprawling landmasses for granted, but for smaller oceanic nations, topography takes on greater importance.
In the Indian Ocean, ringed by protective barriers, lies the island city of Malé – the capital of the Maldives. Malé has a thriving tourism industry and is one of the most urbanized islands in the world, but it has one major problem: its elevation (or lack thereof).
Over 80% of the nation’s landmass is below 3.3 ft (1m), leaving it acutely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. If sea levels continue to rise, the entire chain of islands, including the homes of half a million people, could be submerged in as soon as 30 years.
Breaking out the measuring stick
Today’s data visualization, via Fascinating Maps, is a global breakdown of every country’s elevation span, from the severe mountain peaks that dominate Bhutan’s landscape, to the sweltering Dead Sea depression that runs along the Israel–Jordan border.
By looking at the data, we see interesting patterns and unique situations emerge.
The Power of Zero: The median low-end land elevation of the world’s countries is zero. This is because shoreline typically makes up the lowest portion of a country’s terra firma. It’s easy to spot a landlocked country in the data set, as its lowest elevation is far more likely to be above sea level.
The Lowlands: In general, the smallest countries tend to have the smallest elevation spans, but some countries buck that trend. Denmark, which has a respectable 16,577 quare miles (42,933 sq. km) of land, has an elevation range of only 583 ft (178m). This means the highest point in the country is only 50m taller than its tallest building, Herlev Hospital, near Copenhagen.
The Highlands: Three countries – Nepal, Tajikistan, and Bhutan – have an average elevation that soars above 10,000 ft (3,050m). The latter country has the highest average elevation in the world.
Bhutan Elevation Map:
Supersized Elevation Span: China has the the largest elevation span of any country on Earth. The average elevation of the country skews high, thanks in part to the Tibetan Plateau. A number of the highest permanent settlements in the world exist in this region.
Misc
Sharpen Your Thinking with These 10 Powerful Cognitive Razors
Here are 10 razors, or rules of thumb, that help simplify decision-making, inspired by a list curated by the investor and thought leader Sahil Bloom.

Improve Your Decision-Making with These 10 Cognitive Razors
The average adult makes about 35,000 conscious decisions each day.
Given this sheer volume of choice, how do we ensure we’re making the right decisions, day in and day out, without becoming exhausted?
Using insights from investor and thought leader Sahil Bloom, this graphic shares 10 cognitive razors, or rules of thumb, that can help you simplify your decision-making.
We’ve organized Bloom’s favorite cognitive razors into three overarching categories, which we dive into in further detail below.
Location, Location, Location
The first theme is location, and the importance of being at the right place at the right time.
The Luck Razor falls into this category because it highlights the importance of putting yourself out there. According to the Luck Razor, when choosing between two paths, pick the one with the largest “luck surface area,” or the path that offers you the most opportunity to get lucky.
This is because when you’re networking, meeting people, and building new relationships, you’re much more likely to stumble upon an opportunity than if you were sitting on your couch, not taking action.
The Rooms Razor follows a similar theme because it emphasizes the importance of your surroundings. It stresses that, if you have a choice between two rooms to walk into, choose the one where you’re most likely to be the dumbest person in the room.
While it’s a bit of an uncomfortable situation, it provides a greater opportunity for growth, as long as you check your ego at the door and listen to what others have to say.
Lastly, the Arena Razor reminds us that when we want something, we need to take the necessary steps to make it happen.
For instance, if you want to become a social media influencer, you need to start creating content and posting it online. It’s not easy to put yourself out there and take action, but if you want to play the game, you need to be in the arena.
The Power of Positive Thinking
The next theme is the power of mindset and positive thinking. This relates to how you view your life, the people you choose to surround yourself with, and how you interpret the actions and opinions of others.
According to the Gratitude Razor, when in doubt, don’t hesitate to show your gratitude to people who have supported you, or given you advice or opportunities.
Research studies have shown that expressing gratitude and giving thanks can be correlated with greater happiness, improved health, and stronger more meaningful relationships. So make sure to say thank you regularly, and tell your loved ones how much you appreciate their support.
It’s not just your mindset that’s important, though. The Optimist Razor recommends surrounding yourself with optimists, rather than pessimists. Pessimists may point out everything that could go wrong in a scenario, which might discourage you to break out of your comfort zone.
Optimism, on the other hand, will emphasize everything that could go right—and may even help you problem solve if you encounter problems along the way.
Keep Decision-Making Simple, Silly
The last one is quite simple, really: don’t overcomplicate things.
Occam’s Razor, which is named after the 14th-century scholar Franciscan friar William of Ockham, is generally interpreted as the following: when faced with a decision between two competing theories that generate the same outcome, the simplest theory is often the best one.
As Bloom says in this blog post, “simple assumptions [over] complex assumptions. If you have to believe a complex, intertwined series of assumptions in order to reach one specific conclusion, always ask whether there is a simple alternative assumption that fits.”
The ability to make things simple is also a good indicator of how deeply you understand something. According to the Feynman Razor, if you can’t explain a concept simply, then you don’t really understand it. So, if someone uses a ton of jargon or complexity to explain something, they could be masking a lack of deeper knowledge on the topic.
Editor’s note: For more information on cognitive razors and simplifying your decision-making, check out Sahil Bloom’s newsletter, or listen to his podcast episode where he talks about the most powerful razors he’s discovered so far in life.
Technology
Every Mission to Mars in One Visualization
This graphic shows a timeline of every mission to Mars since 1960, highlighting which ones have been successful and which ones haven’t.

Timeline: A Historical Look at Every Mission to Mars
Within our Solar System, Mars is one of the most similar planets to Earth—both have rocky landscapes, solid outer crusts, and cores made of molten rock.
Because of its similarities to Earth and proximity, humanity has been fascinated by Mars for centuries. In fact, it’s one of the most explored objects in our Solar System.
But just how many missions to Mars have we embarked on, and which of these journeys have been successful? This graphic by Jonathan Letourneau shows a timeline of every mission to Mars since 1960 using NASA’s historical data.
A Timeline of Mars Explorations
According to a historical log from NASA, there have been 48 missions to Mars over the last 60 years. Here’s a breakdown of each mission, and whether or not they were successful:
# | Launch | Name | Country | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1960 | Korabl 4 | USSR (flyby) | Failure |
2 | 1960 | Korabl 5 | USSR (flyby) | Failure |
3 | 1962 | Korabl 11 | USSR (flyby) | Failure |
4 | 1962 | Mars 1 | USSR (flyby) | Failure |
5 | 1962 | Korabl 13 | USSR (flyby) | Failure |
6 | 1964 | Mariner 3 | US (flyby) | Failure |
7 | 1964 | Mariner 4 | US (flyby) | Success |
8 | 1964 | Zond 2 | USSR (flyby) | Failure |
9 | 1969 | Mars 1969A | USSR | Failure |
10 | 1969 | Mars 1969B | USSR | Failure |
11 | 1969 | Mariner 6 | US (flyby) | Success |
12 | 1969 | Mariner 7 | US (flyby) | Success |
13 | 1971 | Mariner 8 | US | Failure |
14 | 1971 | Kosmos 419 | USSR | Failure |
15 | 1971 | Mars 2 Orbiter/Lander | USSR | Failure |
16 | 1971 | Mars 3 Orbiter/Lander | USSR | Success/Failure |
17 | 1971 | Mariner 9 | US | Success |
18 | 1973 | Mars 4 | USSR | Failure |
19 | 1973 | Mars 5 | USSR | Success |
20 | 1973 | Mars 6 Orbiter/Lander | USSR | Success/Failure |
21 | 1973 | Mars 7 Lander | USSR | Failure |
22 | 1975 | Viking 1 Orbiter/Lander | US | Success |
23 | 1975 | Viking 2 Orbiter/Lander | US | Success |
24 | 1988 | Phobos 1 Orbiter | USSR | Failure |
25 | 1988 | Phobos 2 Orbiter/Lander | USSR | Failure |
26 | 1992 | Mars Observer | US | Failure |
27 | 1996 | Mars Global Surveyor | US | Success |
28 | 1996 | Mars 96 | Russia | Failure |
29 | 1996 | Mars Pathfinder | US | Success |
30 | 1998 | Nozomi | Japan | Failure |
31 | 1998 | Mars Climate Orbiter | US | Failure |
32 | 1999 | Mars Polar Lander | US | Failure |
33 | 1999 | Deep Space 2 Probes (2) | US | Failure |
34 | 2001 | Mars Odyssey | US | Success |
35 | 2003 | Mars Express Orbiter/Beagle 2 Lander | ESA | Success/Failure |
36 | 2003 | Mars Exploration Rover - Spirit | US | Success |
37 | 2003 | Mars Exploration Rover - Opportunity | US | Success |
38 | 2005 | Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter | US | Success |
39 | 2007 | Phoenix Mars Lander | US | Success |
40 | 2011 | Mars Science Laboratory | US | Success |
41 | 2011 | Phobos-Grunt/Yinghuo-1 | Russia/China | Failure |
42 | 2013 | Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution | US | Success |
43 | 2013 | Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) | India | Success |
44 | 2016 | ExoMars Orbiter/Schiaparelli EDL Demo Lander | ESA/Russia | Success/Failure |
45 | 2018 | Mars InSight Lander | US | Success |
46 | 2020 | Hope Orbiter | UAE | Success |
47 | 2020 | Tianwen-1 Orbiter/Zhurong Rover | China | Success |
48 | 2020 | Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover | US | Success |
The first mission to Mars was attempted by the Soviets in 1960, with the launch of Korabl 4, also known as Mars 1960A.
As the table above shows, the voyage was unsuccessful. The spacecraft made it 120 km into the air, but its third-stage pumps didn’t generate enough momentum for it to stay in Earth’s orbit.
For the next few years, several more unsuccessful Mars missions were attempted by the USSR and then NASA. Then, in 1964, history was made when NASA launched the Mariner 4 and completed the first-ever successful trip to Mars.
The Mariner 4 didn’t actually land on the planet, but the spacecraft flew by Mars and was able to capture photos, which gave us an up-close glimpse at the planet’s rocky surface.
Then on July 20, 1976, NASA made history again when its spacecraft called Viking 1 touched down on Mars’ surface, making it the first space agency to complete a successful Mars landing. Viking 1 captured panoramic images of the planet’s terrain, and also enabled scientists to monitor the planet’s weather.
Vacation to Mars, Anyone?
To date, all Mars landings have been done without crews, but NASA is planning to send humans to Mars by the late 2030s.
And it’s not just government agencies that are planning missions to Mars—a number of private companies are getting involved, too. Elon Musk’s aerospace company SpaceX has a long-term plan to build an entire city on Mars.
Two other aerospace startups, Impulse and Relativity, also announced an unmanned joint mission to Mars in July 2022, with hopes it could be ready as soon as 2024.
As more players are added to the mix, the pressure is on to be the first company or agency to truly make it to Mars. If (or when) we reach that point, what’s next is anyone’s guess.
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