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Mapped: What Did the World Look Like in the Last Ice Age?

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A map of the Earth 20,000 years ago, at the peak of the last ice age, when colder temperatures transformed the planet 
we know so well.

What Did the World Look Like in the Last Ice Age?

What did the world look like during the last ice age? Was it all endless glaciers and frozen ice? The answer is a partial yes—with some interesting caveats.

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), colloquially called the last ice age, was a period in Earth’s history that occurred roughly 26,000 to 19,000 years ago.

This map by cartographer Perrin Remonté offers a snapshot of the Earth from that time, using data of past sea levels and glaciers from research published in 2009, 2014, and 2021, alongside modern-day topographical data.

Let’s dive into the differences between the two Earths below.

The Last Ice Age: Low Seas, Exposed Landmasses

During an ice age, sea levels fall as ocean water that evaporates is stored on land on a large scale (ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers) instead of returning to the ocean.

Earth's Ice Cover20,000 Years AgoToday
Surface8%3%
Land25%11%

At the time of the LGM, the climate was cold and dry with temperatures that were 6 °C (11 °F) lower on average. Water levels in the ocean were more than 400 feet below what they are now, exposing large areas of the continental shelf.

In the map above, these areas are represented as the gray, dry land most noticeable in a few big patches in Southeast Asia and between Russia and Alaska. Here are a few examples of regions of dry land from 20,000 years ago that are now under water:

  • A “lost continent” called Sundaland, a southeastern extension of Asia which forms the island regions of Indonesia today. Some scholars see a connection with this location and the mythical site of Atlantis, though there are many other theories.
  • The Bering land bridge, now a strait, connecting Asia and North America. It is central to the theory explaining how ancient humans crossed between the two continents.
  • Another land bridge connected the island of Great Britain with the rest of continental Europe. The island of Ireland is in turn connected to Great Britain by a giant ice sheet.
  • In Japan, the low water level made the Sea of Japan a lake, and a land bridge connected the region to the Asian mainland. The Yellow Sea—famous as a modern-day fishing location—was completely dry.

The cold temperatures also caused the polar parts of continents to be covered by massive ice sheets, with glaciers forming in mountainous areas.

Flora and Fauna in the Last Ice Age

The dry climate during the last ice age brought about the expansion of deserts and the disappearance of rivers, but some areas saw increased precipitation from falling temperatures.

Most of Canada and Northern Europe was covered with large ice sheets. The U.S. was a mix of ice sheets, alpine deserts, snow forests, semi-arid scrubland and temperate grasslands. Areas that are deserts today—like the Mojave—were filled with lakes. The Great Salt Lake in Utah is a remnant from this time.

Africa had a mix of grasslands in its southern half and deserts in the north—the Sahara Desert existed then as well—and Asia was a mix of tropical deserts in the west, alpine deserts in China, and grasslands in the Indian subcontinent.

Several large animals like the woolly mammoth, the mastodon, the giant beaver, and the saber-toothed tiger roamed the world in extremely harsh conditions, but sadly all are extinct today.

However, not all megafauna from the LGM disappeared forever; many species are still alive, including the Bactrian camel, the tapir, the musk ox, and the white rhinoceros—though the latter is now an endangered species.

Will There Be Another Ice Age?

In a technical sense, we’re still in an “ice age” called the Quaternary Glaciation, which began about 2.6 million years ago. That’s because a permanent ice sheet has existed for the entire time, the Antarctic, which makes geologists call this entire period an ice age.

We are currently in a relatively warmer part of that ice age, described as an interglacial period, which began 11,700 years ago. This geological epoch is known as the Holocene.

Over billions of years, the Earth has experienced numerous glacial and interglacial periods and has had five major ice ages:

Major Ice AgesNameTime Period (Years Ago)
1Huronian Glaciation2.4 billion - 2.1 billion
2Cryogenian Glaciation720 million - 635 million
3Andean-Saharan Glaciation450 million - 420 million
4Late Paleozoic ice age335 million - 260 million
5Quaternary Glaciation2.6 million - present

It is predicted that temperatures will fall again in a few thousand years, leading to expansion of ice sheets. However there are a dizzying array of factors that are still not understood well enough to say comprehensively what causes (or ends) ice ages.

A popular explanation says the degree of the Earth’s axial tilt, its wobble, and its orbital shape, are the main factors heralding the start and end of this phenomenon.

The variations in all three lead to a change in how much prolonged sunlight parts of the world receive, which in turn can cause the creation or melting of ice sheets. But these take thousands of years to coincide and cause a significant change in climate.

Furthermore, current industrial activities have warmed the climate considerably and may in fact delay the next ice age by 50,000-100,000 years.

Still on a history kick? Check out Mapped: The Ancient Seven Wonders of the World that captivated people for thousands of years.
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This article was published as a part of Visual Capitalist's Creator Program, which features data-driven visuals from some of our favorite Creators around the world.

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War

Mapped: Every Known U.S. Military Base Overseas

The world’s largest defense budget affords a lot of room for sustaining military bases around the world. Here’s where they are.

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This graphic locates the known overseas bases of the American military, categorised by who controls the base.

Mapped: All the Known U.S. Military Bases Overseas

This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on iOS or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.

This graphic locates the known overseas bases of the American military, categorized by who controls the base.

In red are the ones controlled by the U.S., and blue are ones controlled by the host country.

ℹ️ This map does not include several hundred temporary sites for military exercises or contingency operations.

Data is sourced from a Congressional report published in 2024. Troop data is from the Defense Manpower Data Center, current to March 2024.

Ranked: Countries with the Most U.S. Bases and Troops

Based on unclassified data, the U.S. has at least 128 bases across 49 countries.

Of them, Japan (14), has the most by far, followed by the Philippines (9) and South Korea (8). Here’s the full list of all 128 listed bases, the country they’re in, and who controls them.

Base NameCountryISO CodeStatus
Kyogamisaki CS🇯🇵 JapanJPNAlly Controlled
Misawa AB🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
Shariki CS🇯🇵 JapanJPNAlly Controlled
Yokota AB🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
Camp Zama🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
USFA Yokosuka🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
NAF Atsugi🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
MCAS Iwakuni🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
Kure Pier 6🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
USFA Sasebo🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
USAG Okinawa🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
MCB Camp Butler🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
MCAS Futenma🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
Kadena AB🇯🇵 JapanJPNU.S. Controlled
MCI Mujuk🇰🇷 South KoreaKORAlly Controlled
USAG Daegu🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
USAG Yongsan-Casey🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
Tango🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
Osan AB🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
Camp Humphreys🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
Kunsan AB🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
USFA Chinhae🇰🇷 South KoreaKORU.S. Controlled
USAG Kwajalein Atoll🇲🇭 Marshall IslandsMHLU.S. Controlled
Navy Region
Center Singapore
🇸🇬 SingaporeSGPU.S. Controlled
NSF Diego Garcia🇮🇴 British Indian TerritoryIOTU.S. Controlled
Antonio Bautista AB🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Benito Ebuen AB🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Lumbia Airport🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Basa AB🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Fort Magsaysay🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Camp Melchor Dela🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Lal-lo Airport🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
NB Camilo Osias🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Balabac Island🇵🇭 PhilippinesPHLAlly Controlled
Nadzab Airport🇵🇬 Papua New GuineaPNGAlly Controlled
Lae Seaport🇵🇬 Papua New GuineaPNGAlly Controlled
Momote Airport🇵🇬 Papua New GuineaPNGAlly Controlled
Lobrum NB🇵🇬 Papua New GuineaPNGAlly Controlled
Port Moresby🇵🇬 Papua New GuineaPNGAlly Controlled
Jackson International Airport & Seaport🇵🇬 Papua New GuineaPNGAlly Controlled
RAAF Base Darwin🇦🇺 AustraliaAUSAlly Controlled
RAAF Base Tindal🇦🇺 AustraliaAUSAlly Controlled
NCS Harold E. Holt🇦🇺 AustraliaAUSAlly Controlled
Robertson Barracks🇦🇺 AustraliaAUSU.S. Controlled
Pituffik Space Base🇬🇱 GreenlandGRLU.S. Controlled
NAS Keflavik🇮🇸 IcelandISLU.S. Controlled
Joint Warfare Center🇳🇴 NorwayNORU.S. Controlled
RAF Menwith Hill🇬🇧 UKGBRU.S. Controlled
RAF Alconbury /
Molesworth
🇬🇧 UKGBRU.S. Controlled
RAF Lakenhealth🇬🇧 UKGBRU.S. Controlled
RAF Mildenhall🇬🇧 UKGBRU.S. Controlled
RAF Croughton🇬🇧 UKGBRU.S. Controlled
Lajes Field🇵🇹 PortugalPRTU.S. Controlled
Moron AB🇪🇸 SpainESPU.S. Controlled
NS Rota🇪🇸 SpainESPU.S. Controlled
USAG Benelux🇧🇪 BelgiumBELU.S. Controlled
Kleine Brogel AB🇧🇪 BelgiumBELU.S. Controlled
Geilenkirchen AB🇧🇪 BelgiumBELU.S. Controlled
Spangdahlem AB🇩🇪 GermanyDEUU.S. Controlled
Ramstein AB🇩🇪 GermanyDEUU.S. Controlled
USAG Weisbaden🇩🇪 GermanyDEUU.S. Controlled
USAG Stuttgart🇩🇪 GermanyDEUU.S. Controlled
USAG Ansbach🇩🇪 GermanyDEUU.S. Controlled
USAG Bavaria🇩🇪 GermanyDEUU.S. Controlled
Aviano AB🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
USAG Vicenza🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
Ghedi AB🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
Camp Darby🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
NSA Detachment Gaeta🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
NSA Naples🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
NAS Sigonella🇮🇹 ItalyITAU.S. Controlled
Amari AB🇪🇪 EstoniaESTAlly Controlled
Lielvarde AB🇱🇻 LatviaLVAAlly Controlled
Siauliai🇱🇹 LithuaniaLTUAlly Controlled
Camp Herkus🇱🇹 LithuaniaLTUAlly Controlled
NSF Redzikowo🇵🇱 PolandPOLAlly Controlled
Powidz AB🇵🇱 PolandPOLAlly Controlled
Lask AB🇵🇱 PolandPOLAlly Controlled
Zagan🇵🇱 PolandPOLAlly Controlled
Camp Kosciuszuko🇵🇱 PolandPOLAlly Controlled
Papa AB🇭🇺 HungaryHUNAlly Controlled
Kecskemet AB🇭🇺 HungaryHUNAlly Controlled
Camp Turzii🇷🇴 RomaniaROUAlly Controlled
NSF Deveselu🇷🇴 RomaniaROUAlly Controlled
Mihail Kogalniceanu AB🇷🇴 RomaniaROUAlly Controlled
Novo Selo Training Area🇧🇬 BulgariaBGRAlly Controlled
Graf Ignatievo AB🇧🇬 BulgariaBGRAlly Controlled
Larissa AB🇬🇷 GreeceGRCAlly Controlled
Stefanovikeio AB🇬🇷 GreeceGRCAlly Controlled
NSA Souda Bay🇬🇷 GreeceGRCU.S. Controlled
RAF Akrotiri🇨🇾 CyprusCYPAlly Controlled
Camp Bondsteel🇽🇰 KosovoXKXU.S. Controlled
Incirlik AB🇹🇷 TurkeyTURU.S. Controlled
Izmir AS🇹🇷 TurkeyTURU.S. Controlled
MFO South Camp🇪🇬 EgyptEGYAlly Controlled
Muwaffaq Salti AB🇯🇴 JordanJORAlly Controlled
Al-Tanf garrison🇸🇾 SyriaSYRAlly Controlled
Rumalyn🇸🇾 SyriaSYRAlly Controlled
Erbil AB🇮🇶 IraqIRQAlly Controlled
Al Assad AB🇮🇶 IraqIRQAlly Controlled
Duqm🇴🇲 OmanOMNAlly Controlled
Jebel Ali🇦🇪 UAEAREAlly Controlled
Al Dhafra AB🇦🇪 UAEAREU.S. Controlled
Al Udeid AB🇶🇦 QatarQATU.S. Controlled
NSA Bahrain🇧🇭 BahrainBHRU.S. Controlled
Sheik Isa AB🇧🇭 BahrainBHRAlly Controlled
Prince Sultan AB🇸🇦 Saudi ArabiaSAUAlly Controlled
King Faisal AB🇸🇦 Saudi ArabiaSAUAlly Controlled
Camp Buehring🇰🇼 KuwaitKWTU.S. Controlled
Al Jaber AB🇰🇼 KuwaitKWTU.S. Controlled
Ali Al Salem AB🇰🇼 KuwaitKWTU.S. Controlled
Camp Arifjan🇰🇼 KuwaitKWTU.S. Controlled
Al Mubarak AB🇰🇼 KuwaitKWTU.S. Controlled
Camp Lemonnier🇩🇯 DjiboutiDJIU.S. Controlled
Ascension Island
Auxiliary Airfield
🇸🇭 St. HelenaHLEU.S. Controlled
Chabelley Airfield🇩🇯 DjiboutiDJIAlly Controlled
Baledogle🇸🇴 SomaliaSOMAlly Controlled
Mogadishu🇸🇴 SomaliaSOMAlly Controlled
Kismayo🇸🇴 SomaliaSOMAlly Controlled
Manda Bay🇰🇪 KenyaKENAlly Controlled
Mombasa🇰🇪 KenyaKENAlly Controlled
N'djamena 🇹🇩 ChadTCDAlly Controlled
Atlantic Undersea
Test & Evaluation
Center
🇧🇸 The BahamasBHSU.S. Controlled
Naval Station
Guantanamo Bay
🇨🇺 CubaCUBU.S. Controlled
Soto Cano Air Base🇭🇳 HondurasHNDU.S. Controlled
CSL Comalapa🇸🇻 El SalvadorSLVAlly Controlled
CSL Reina Beatrix
International Airport
🇦🇼 ArubaABWAlly Controlled
CSL Hato
International Airport
🇨🇼 CuracaoCUWAlly Controlled

A quick glance at the map reveals the two major security priorities for the U.S. military: Europe and East Asia.

Japan also has the most troops stationed in any country, numbering 53,000 at last count.

While Germany, Italy, and the UK don’t have double-digit bases like Japan, collectively Europe has a huge American presence, when adding in all bases and troops together.

And this isn’t even accounting for the additional 80,000 soldiers deployed to the region after the 2022 Russian invasion.

Middle East: A Growing Security Sphere

While not as nearly cluttered as Europe and East Asia, the Middle East is also home to numerous American bases. Key allies Kuwait and Bahrain also host forces.

RankCountries With the
Most U.S. Bases
BasesCountries With the
Most U.S. Troops
Troops
1🇯🇵 Japan14🇯🇵 Japan52,852
2🇵🇭 Philippines9🇩🇪 Germany34,894
3🇰🇷 South Korea8🇰🇷 South Korea23,732
4🇮🇹 Italy7🇮🇹 Italy12,319
5🇵🇬 Papua New Guinea6🇬🇧 UK10,180
6🇩🇪 Germany6🇧🇭 Bahrain3,424
7🇬🇧 UK5🇪🇸 Spain3,253
8🇵🇱 Poland5🇹🇷 Turkey1,683
9🇰🇼 Kuwait5🇧🇪 Belgium1,119
10🇦🇺 Australia4🇨🇺 Cuba572

Nothing makes security priorities more clear than base in Djibouti, not just for the U.S. but also the rest of the world.

It’s situated on the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, which connects the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, and is a key shipping route. The Red Sea has been in the news lately due to Houthi rebel attacks.

Thus, Djibouti’s strategic location, and careful deal-making, has resulted in the country hosting military bases from seven other nations as well. This includes political rivals to the U.S., like China.

Learn More on the Voronoi App

You might have noticed several NATO members hosting troops and bases. Check out: NATO Members Are Ramping up Defense Spending to see how the Russian invasion had an impact.

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