Maps
Mapped: What Did the World Look Like in the Last Ice Age?
Click to view this graphic in a higher-resolution.
What Did the World Look Like in the Last Ice Age?
What did the world look like during the last ice age? Was it all endless glaciers and frozen ice? The answer is a partial yes—with some interesting caveats.
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), colloquially called the last ice age, was a period in Earth’s history that occurred roughly 26,000 to 19,000 years ago.
This map by cartographer Perrin Remonté offers a snapshot of the Earth from that time, using data of past sea levels and glaciers from research published in 2009, 2014, and 2021, alongside modern-day topographical data.
Let’s dive into the differences between the two Earths below.
The Last Ice Age: Low Seas, Exposed Landmasses
During an ice age, sea levels fall as ocean water that evaporates is stored on land on a large scale (ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers) instead of returning to the ocean.
Earth's Ice Cover | 20,000 Years Ago | Today |
---|---|---|
Surface | 8% | 3% |
Land | 25% | 11% |
At the time of the LGM, the climate was cold and dry with temperatures that were 6 °C (11 °F) lower on average. Water levels in the ocean were more than 400 feet below what they are now, exposing large areas of the continental shelf.
In the map above, these areas are represented as the gray, dry land most noticeable in a few big patches in Southeast Asia and between Russia and Alaska. Here are a few examples of regions of dry land from 20,000 years ago that are now under water:
- A “lost continent” called Sundaland, a southeastern extension of Asia which forms the island regions of Indonesia today. Some scholars see a connection with this location and the mythical site of Atlantis, though there are many other theories.
- The Bering land bridge, now a strait, connecting Asia and North America. It is central to the theory explaining how ancient humans crossed between the two continents.
- Another land bridge connected the island of Great Britain with the rest of continental Europe. The island of Ireland is in turn connected to Great Britain by a giant ice sheet.
- In Japan, the low water level made the Sea of Japan a lake, and a land bridge connected the region to the Asian mainland. The Yellow Sea—famous as a modern-day fishing location—was completely dry.
The cold temperatures also caused the polar parts of continents to be covered by massive ice sheets, with glaciers forming in mountainous areas.
Flora and Fauna in the Last Ice Age
The dry climate during the last ice age brought about the expansion of deserts and the disappearance of rivers, but some areas saw increased precipitation from falling temperatures.
Most of Canada and Northern Europe was covered with large ice sheets. The U.S. was a mix of ice sheets, alpine deserts, snow forests, semi-arid scrubland and temperate grasslands. Areas that are deserts today—like the Mojave—were filled with lakes. The Great Salt Lake in Utah is a remnant from this time.
Africa had a mix of grasslands in its southern half and deserts in the north—the Sahara Desert existed then as well—and Asia was a mix of tropical deserts in the west, alpine deserts in China, and grasslands in the Indian subcontinent.
Several large animals like the woolly mammoth, the mastodon, the giant beaver, and the saber-toothed tiger roamed the world in extremely harsh conditions, but sadly all are extinct today.
However, not all megafauna from the LGM disappeared forever; many species are still alive, including the Bactrian camel, the tapir, the musk ox, and the white rhinoceros—though the latter is now an endangered species.
Will There Be Another Ice Age?
In a technical sense, we’re still in an “ice age” called the Quaternary Glaciation, which began about 2.6 million years ago. That’s because a permanent ice sheet has existed for the entire time, the Antarctic, which makes geologists call this entire period an ice age.
We are currently in a relatively warmer part of that ice age, described as an interglacial period, which began 11,700 years ago. This geological epoch is known as the Holocene.
Over billions of years, the Earth has experienced numerous glacial and interglacial periods and has had five major ice ages:
Major Ice Ages | Name | Time Period (Years Ago) |
---|---|---|
1 | Huronian Glaciation | 2.4 billion - 2.1 billion |
2 | Cryogenian Glaciation | 720 million - 635 million |
3 | Andean-Saharan Glaciation | 450 million - 420 million |
4 | Late Paleozoic ice age | 335 million - 260 million |
5 | Quaternary Glaciation | 2.6 million - present |
It is predicted that temperatures will fall again in a few thousand years, leading to expansion of ice sheets. However there are a dizzying array of factors that are still not understood well enough to say comprehensively what causes (or ends) ice ages.
A popular explanation says the degree of the Earth’s axial tilt, its wobble, and its orbital shape, are the main factors heralding the start and end of this phenomenon.
The variations in all three lead to a change in how much prolonged sunlight parts of the world receive, which in turn can cause the creation or melting of ice sheets. But these take thousands of years to coincide and cause a significant change in climate.
Furthermore, current industrial activities have warmed the climate considerably and may in fact delay the next ice age by 50,000-100,000 years.

This article was published as a part of Visual Capitalist's Creator Program, which features data-driven visuals from some of our favorite Creators around the world.
Science
Mapped: Life Expectancy by Country in 2025
Using 2025 projections from UN data published last year, we map out life expectancy by country. Regional patterns are apparent.

Mapped: Life Expectancy by Country in 2025
This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on iOS or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.
Key Takeaways
- Western European countries have an 80+ life expectancy at birth, the highest regionally.
- However, several African countries have a below-60 life expectancy, a projected lifespan that is a full 20 years shorter.
How long you live depends a lot on where you’re born.
We illustrate this phenomenon in the above map, which uses 2025 life expectancy at birth projections from the UN World Population Prospects published last year.
Life expectancy at birth measures the average number of years that a newborn could expect to live, if they were subject to the age-specific mortality rates of a given period.
Ranked: Countries Where People Live the Longest
The micronation of Monaco has the highest average life expectancy in the world. A baby born in the country in 2025 can expect to live to 87 years old.
Rank | Country | ISO Code | Average life expectancy at birth, 2025 (in years) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 🇲🇨 Monaco | MCO | 87 |
2 | 🇸🇲 San Marino | SMR | 86 |
3 | 🇭🇰 Hong Kong | HKG | 86 |
4 | 🇯🇵 Japan | JPN | 85 |
5 | 🇰🇷 South Korea | KOR | 85 |
6 | 🇧🇱 Saint Barthélemy | BLM | 85 |
7 | 🇦🇩 Andorra | AND | 84 |
8 | 🇵🇫 French Polynesia | PYF | 84 |
9 | 🇨🇭 Switzerland | CHE | 84 |
10 | 🇦🇺 Australia | AUS | 84 |
11 | 🇮🇹 Italy | ITA | 84 |
12 | 🇸🇬 Singapore | SGP | 84 |
13 | 🇪🇸 Spain | ESP | 84 |
14 | 🇱🇮 Liechtenstein | LIE | 84 |
15 | 🇷🇪 Réunion | REU | 84 |
16 | 🇬🇮 Gibraltar | GIB | 84 |
17 | 🇲🇹 Malta | MLT | 84 |
18 | 🇳🇴 Norway | NOR | 84 |
19 | 🇫🇷 France | FRA | 84 |
20 | 🇸🇪 Sweden | SWE | 84 |
21 | 🇬🇬 Guernsey | GGY | 84 |
22 | 🇲🇴 Macao | MAC | 83 |
23 | 🇻🇦 Holy See | VAT | 83 |
24 | 🇦🇪 UAE | ARE | 83 |
25 | 🇮🇸 Iceland | ISL | 83 |
26 | 🇲🇶 Martinique | MTQ | 83 |
27 | 🇨🇦 Canada | CAN | 83 |
28 | 🇮🇱 Israel | ISR | 83 |
29 | 🇮🇪 Ireland | IRL | 83 |
30 | 🇵🇹 Portugal | PRT | 83 |
31 | 🇶🇦 Qatar | QAT | 83 |
32 | 🇧🇲 Bermuda | BMU | 83 |
33 | 🇱🇺 Luxembourg | LUX | 82 |
34 | 🇳🇱 Netherlands | NLD | 82 |
35 | 🇧🇪 Belgium | BEL | 82 |
36 | 🇬🇵 Guadeloupe | GLP | 82 |
37 | 🇳🇿 New Zealand | NZL | 82 |
38 | 🇦🇹 Austria | AUT | 82 |
39 | 🇩🇰 Denmark | DNK | 82 |
40 | 🇫🇮 Finland | FIN | 82 |
41 | 🇬🇷 Greece | GRC | 82 |
42 | 🇵🇷 Puerto Rico | PRI | 82 |
43 | 🇨🇾 Cyprus | CYP | 82 |
44 | 🇸🇮 Slovenia | SVN | 82 |
45 | 🇩🇪 Germany | DEU | 82 |
46 | 🇬🇧 UK | GBR | 82 |
47 | 🇧🇭 Bahrain | BHR | 82 |
48 | 🇨🇱 Chile | CHL | 82 |
49 | 🇲🇻 Maldives | MDV | 82 |
50 | 🇮🇲 Isle of Man | IMN | 81 |
51 | 🇨🇷 Costa Rica | CRI | 81 |
52 | 🇹🇼 Taiwan | TWN | 81 |
53 | 🇰🇼 Kuwait | KWT | 81 |
54 | 🇰🇾 Cayman Islands | CYM | 81 |
55 | 🇲🇫 Saint Martin | MAF | 81 |
56 | 🇫🇴 Faroe Islands | FRO | 81 |
57 | 🇴🇲 Oman | OMN | 80 |
58 | 🇨🇿 Czechia | CZE | 80 |
59 | 🇯🇪 Jersey | JEY | 80 |
60 | 🇵🇦 Panama | PAN | 80 |
61 | 🇦🇱 Albania | ALB | 80 |
62 | 🇦🇮 Anguilla | AIA | 80 |
63 | 🇺🇸 U.S. | USA | 80 |
64 | 🇫🇰 Falkland Islands | FLK | 80 |
65 | 🇪🇪 Estonia | EST | 79 |
66 | 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia | SAU | 79 |
67 | 🇲🇵 Northern Mariana Islands | MNP | 79 |
68 | 🇳🇨 New Caledonia | NCL | 79 |
69 | 🇵🇱 Poland | POL | 79 |
70 | 🇭🇷 Croatia | HRV | 79 |
71 | 🇼🇫 Wallis & Futuna Islands | WLF | 79 |
72 | 🇸🇰 Slovakia | SVK | 79 |
73 | 🇺🇾 Uruguay | URY | 78 |
74 | 🇨🇺 Cuba | CUB | 78 |
75 | 🇽🇰 Kosovo | XKX | 78 |
76 | 🇨🇳 China | CHN | 78 |
77 | 🇹🇨 Turks & Caicos Islands | TCA | 78 |
78 | 🇧🇦 Bosnia & Herzegovina | BIH | 78 |
79 | 🇯🇴 Jordan | JOR | 78 |
80 | 🇵🇪 Peru | PER | 78 |
81 | 🇨🇴 Colombia | COL | 78 |
82 | 🇱🇧 Lebanon | LBN | 78 |
83 | 🇮🇷 Iran | IRN | 78 |
84 | 🇦🇬 Antigua and Barbuda | ATG | 78 |
85 | 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka | LKA | 78 |
86 | 🇹🇷 Türkiye | TUR | 78 |
87 | 🇧🇶 Bonaire | BES | 78 |
88 | 🇪🇨 Ecuador | ECU | 78 |
89 | 🇦🇷 Argentina | ARG | 78 |
90 | 🇲🇰 North Macedonia | MKD | 78 |
91 | 🇬🇺 Guam | GUM | 78 |
92 | 🇻🇬 British Virgin Islands | VGB | 78 |
93 | 🌴 Polynesia (no emoji available) | POL | 78 |
94 | 🇲🇪 Montenegro | MNE | 77 |
95 | 🇬🇫 French Guiana | GUF | 77 |
96 | 🇭🇺 Hungary | HUN | 77 |
97 | 🇹🇰 Tokelau | TKL | 77 |
98 | 🇨🇼 Curaçao | CUW | 77 |
99 | 🇷🇸 Serbia | SRB | 77 |
100 | 🇸🇭 Saint Helena | SHN | 77 |
101 | 🇵🇲 Saint Pierre & Miquelon | SPM | 77 |
102 | 🇲🇾 Malaysia | MYS | 77 |
103 | 🇹🇳 Tunisia | TUN | 77 |
104 | 🇹🇭 Thailand | THA | 77 |
105 | 🇸🇽 Sint Maarten | SXM | 77 |
106 | 🇩🇿 Algeria | DZA | 77 |
107 | 🇦🇼 Aruba | ABW | 77 |
108 | 🇧🇧 Barbados | BRB | 76 |
109 | 🇲🇸 Montserrat | MSR | 76 |
110 | 🇱🇻 Latvia | LVA | 76 |
111 | 🇾🇹 Mayotte | MYT | 76 |
112 | 🇨🇻 Cabo Verde | CPV | 76 |
113 | 🇱🇹 Lithuania | LTU | 76 |
114 | 🇷🇴 Romania | ROU | 76 |
115 | 🇧🇷 Brazil | BRA | 76 |
116 | 🇦🇲 Armenia | ARM | 76 |
117 | 🇧🇬 Bulgaria | BGR | 76 |
118 | 🇻🇮 U.S. Virgin Islands | VIR | 76 |
119 | 🇲🇦 Morocco | MAR | 76 |
120 | 🇧🇳 Brunei Darussalam | BRN | 76 |
121 | 🇨🇰 Cook Islands | COK | 76 |
122 | 🇬🇩 Grenada | GRD | 76 |
123 | 🇲🇽 Mexico | MEX | 75 |
124 | 🇲🇺 Mauritius | MUS | 75 |
125 | 🇳🇮 Nicaragua | NIC | 75 |
126 | 🇧🇩 Bangladesh | BGD | 75 |
127 | 🇻🇳 Viet Nam | VNM | 75 |
128 | 🇺🇦 Ukraine | UKR | 75 |
129 | 🇧🇸 Bahamas | BHS | 75 |
130 | 🇬🇪 Georgia | GEO | 75 |
131 | 🇧🇾 Belarus | BLR | 75 |
132 | 🇦🇿 Azerbaijan | AZE | 75 |
133 | 🇰🇿 Kazakhstan | KAZ | 75 |
134 | 🇵🇾 Paraguay | PRY | 74 |
135 | 🇩🇴 Dominican Republic | DOM | 74 |
136 | 🇧🇿 Belize | BLZ | 74 |
137 | 🇸🇷 Suriname | SUR | 74 |
138 | 🇰🇵 North Korea | PRK | 74 |
139 | 🇹🇹 Trinidad & Tobago | TTO | 74 |
140 | 🇧🇹 Bhutan | BTN | 74 |
141 | 🇷🇺 Russia | RUS | 74 |
142 | 🇹🇴 Tonga | TON | 73 |
143 | 🇭🇳 Honduras | HND | 73 |
144 | 🇱🇾 Libya | LBY | 73 |
145 | 🇸🇨 Seychelles | SYC | 73 |
146 | 🇺🇸 American Samoa | ASM | 73 |
147 | 🇵🇸 Palestine | PSE | 73 |
148 | 🇱🇨 Saint Lucia | LCA | 73 |
149 | 🇸🇾 Syria | SYR | 73 |
150 | 🇬🇹 Guatemala | GTM | 73 |
151 | 🇻🇪 Venezuela | VEN | 73 |
152 | 🇺🇿 Uzbekistan | UZB | 73 |
153 | 🇮🇶 Iraq | IRQ | 73 |
154 | 🇸🇻 El Salvador | SLV | 73 |
155 | 🇮🇳 India | IND | 72 |
156 | 🇰🇳 Saint Kitts and Nevis | KNA | 72 |
157 | 🇲🇳 Mongolia | MNG | 72 |
158 | 🇹🇯 Tajikistan | TJK | 72 |
159 | 🇪🇬 Egypt | EGY | 72 |
160 | 🇰🇬 Kyrgyzstan | KGZ | 72 |
161 | 🇼🇸 Samoa | WSM | 72 |
162 | 🇻🇺 Vanuatu | VUT | 72 |
163 | 🇪🇭 Western Sahara | ESH | 72 |
164 | 🇯🇲 Jamaica | JAM | 72 |
165 | 🇻🇨 Saint Vincent & the Grenadines | VCT | 72 |
166 | 🇲🇩 Moldova | MDA | 71 |
167 | 🇩🇲 Dominica | DMA | 71 |
168 | 🇮🇩 Indonesia | IDN | 71 |
169 | 🇰🇭 Cambodia | KHM | 71 |
170 | 🇳🇵 Nepal | NPL | 71 |
171 | 🇸🇧 Solomon Islands | SLB | 71 |
172 | 🇬🇾 Guyana | GUY | 70 |
173 | 🇹🇲 Turkmenistan | TKM | 70 |
174 | 🇬🇱 Greenland | GRL | 70 |
175 | 🇳🇺 Niue | NIU | 70 |
176 | 🇸🇹 Sao Tome and Principe | STP | 70 |
177 | 🇵🇭 Philippines | PHL | 70 |
178 | 🇾🇪 Yemen | YEM | 70 |
179 | 🇵🇼 Palau | PLW | 69 |
180 | 🇱🇦 Laos | LAO | 69 |
181 | 🇧🇼 Botswana | BWA | 69 |
182 | 🇸🇳 Senegal | SEN | 69 |
183 | 🇪🇷 Eritrea | ERI | 69 |
184 | 🇲🇷 Mauritania | MRT | 69 |
185 | 🇧🇴 Bolivia | BOL | 69 |
186 | 🇺🇬 Uganda | UGA | 69 |
187 | 🇬🇦 Gabon | GAB | 69 |
188 | 🇷🇼 Rwanda | RWA | 68 |
189 | 🇹🇱 Timor-Leste | TLS | 68 |
190 | 🇵🇰 Pakistan | PAK | 68 |
191 | 🇪🇹 Ethiopia | ETH | 68 |
192 | 🇲🇼 Malawi | MWI | 68 |
193 | 🇳🇦 Namibia | NAM | 68 |
194 | 🇫🇯 Fiji | FJI | 68 |
195 | 🇫🇲 Micronesia | FSM | 68 |
196 | 🇹🇿 Tanzania | TZA | 67 |
197 | 🇹🇻 Tuvalu | TUV | 67 |
198 | 🇲🇲 Myanmar | MMR | 67 |
199 | 🇰🇲 Comoros | COM | 67 |
200 | 🇲🇭 Marshall Islands | MHL | 67 |
201 | 🇰🇮 Kiribati | KIR | 67 |
202 | 🇸🇩 Sudan | SDN | 67 |
203 | 🇿🇲 Zambia | ZMB | 67 |
204 | 🇦🇫 Afghanistan | AFG | 67 |
205 | 🇿🇦 South Africa | ZAF | 66 |
206 | 🇩🇯 Djibouti | DJI | 66 |
207 | 🇵🇬 Papua New Guinea | PNG | 66 |
208 | 🇬🇲 Gambia | GMB | 66 |
209 | 🇨🇬 Congo | COG | 66 |
210 | 🇬🇭 Ghana | GHA | 66 |
211 | 🇭🇹 Haiti | HTI | 65 |
212 | 🇦🇴 Angola | AGO | 65 |
213 | 🇬🇼 Guinea-Bissau | GNB | 64 |
214 | 🇸🇿 Eswatini | SWZ | 64 |
215 | 🇨🇲 Cameroon | CMR | 64 |
216 | 🇬🇶 Equatorial Guinea | GNQ | 64 |
217 | 🇲🇬 Madagascar | MDG | 64 |
218 | 🇰🇪 Kenya | KEN | 64 |
219 | 🇧🇮 Burundi | BDI | 64 |
220 | 🇲🇿 Mozambique | MOZ | 64 |
221 | 🇿🇼 Zimbabwe | ZWE | 63 |
222 | 🇹🇬 Togo | TGO | 63 |
223 | 🇱🇷 Liberia | LBR | 62 |
224 | 🇳🇷 Nauru | NRU | 62 |
225 | 🇨🇮 Côte d'Ivoire | CIV | 62 |
226 | 🇨🇩 DRC | COD | 62 |
227 | 🇸🇱 Sierra Leone | SLE | 62 |
228 | 🇳🇪 Niger | NER | 62 |
229 | 🇧🇫 Burkina Faso | BFA | 61 |
230 | 🇧🇯 Benin | BEN | 61 |
231 | 🇬🇳 Guinea | GIN | 61 |
232 | 🇲🇱 Mali | MLI | 61 |
233 | 🇸🇴 Somalia | SOM | 59 |
234 | 🇱🇸 Lesotho | LSO | 58 |
235 | 🇨🇫 Central African Republic | CAF | 58 |
236 | 🇸🇸 South Sudan | SSD | 58 |
237 | 🇹🇩 Chad | TCD | 55 |
238 | 🇳🇬 Nigeria | NGA | 55 |
Note: Figures rounded.
Most of the top 10 countries are similarly small-sized territories or countries.
However, Japan (#4), South Korea (#5), and Australia (#10) are the three top-10 countries with the highest life expectancies (84+) when accounting for a population of more than 20 million people.
Regionally, Western European countries have the highest life expectancies at birth. Their counterparts in Eastern Europe are a shade lower.
And despite Japan and South Korea’s performance, most Asians have life expectancies between 70–80 years. Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Papua New Guinea are below the 70-year threshold.
However, several African countries have a below-60 life expectancy, a projected lifespan that is a full 20 years shorter than Western European residents.
Nigeria has the lowest average life expectancy at birth, at 55 years.
What Life Expectancy Numbers Mean for Individuals
Life expectancies are tricky things to fully comprehend: in that they change throughout a person’s lifespan and are measured for entire cohorts born in a year.
For example, in countries with lower projected expectancies, it doesn’t necessarily mean adults don’t live as long.
A high infant mortality rate for a particular cohort of babies born in a year could reduce the projected lifespan of the entire cohort. However once a baby from that year survives to adulthood, they may very well reach their 70s.
In fact, data shows that the biggest difference between life expectancies of Africa and high-income regions are for those before the age of 5 and after 60.
This is because both babies and older adults have a need for specific medical infrastructure which many Africans don’t have access to.
Learn More on the Voronoi App 
There is a strong correlation between wealth and longer lifespans. Check out Countries with the Highest GDP per Capita in 2024 to see similarities.
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